{"id":27,"date":"2019-07-25T15:11:32","date_gmt":"2019-07-25T15:11:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/"},"modified":"2026-03-16T14:21:15","modified_gmt":"2026-03-16T14:21:15","slug":"teamwork","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/","title":{"raw":"Teamwork","rendered":"Teamwork"},"content":{"raw":"<h1>Chapter Table of Contents<\/h1>\n<ul>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Key\">Some Key Characteristics of Teams<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Why\">Why Organizations Build Teams<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Factors\">Factors in Effective Teamwork<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Cohesive\">Group Cohesiveness<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Groupthink\">Groupthink<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Fail\">Why Teams Fail<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Members\">The Team and Its Members<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Skills\">What Skills does the Team Need?<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Roles\">What Roles do Team Members Play?<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Projects\">Class Team Projects<\/a><\/li>\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Exercises\">Exercises<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">A <b>team<\/b> (or a work team) is a group of people with complementary skills who work together to achieve a specific goal (Thompson[footnote]Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4.[\/footnote]).\u00a0 \u201cA group,\u201d suggests Bonnie Edelstein, a consultant in organizational development, \u201cis a bunch of people in an elevator. A team is also a bunch of people in an elevator, but the elevator is broken.\u201d This distinction may be a little oversimplified, but a team is clearly something more than a mere group of individuals. In particular, members of a group\u2014or, more accurately, a working group\u2014go about their jobs independently and meet primarily to share information. A group of department-store managers, for example, might meet monthly to discuss their progress in cutting plant costs, but each manager is focused on the goals of his or her department because each is held accountable for meeting only those goals. Teams, by contrast, are responsible for achieving specific common goals, and they\u2019re generally empowered to make the decisions needed to complete their authorized tasks.<\/p>\n\n<h1><a id=\"Key\" href=\"\"><\/a>Some Key Characteristics of Teams<\/h1>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">To keep matters in perspective, let\u2019s identify five key characteristics of work teams (Thompson[footnote]Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4.[\/footnote]; Alderfer, et. al.[footnote]Alderfer, C. P., \u201cGroup and Intergroup Relations,\u201d in Improving Life at Work, ed. J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle (Palisades, CA: Goodyear, 1977), 277\u201396[\/footnote]):<\/p>\n\n<ol>\n \t<li>Teams are accountable for achieving specific common goals. Members are collectively responsible for achieving team goals, and if they succeed, they\u2019re rewarded collectively.<\/li>\n \t<li>Teams function interdependently. Members cannot achieve goals independently and must rely on each other for information, input, and expertise.<\/li>\n \t<li>Teams are stable. Teams remain intact long enough to finish their assigned tasks, and each member remains on board long enough to get to know every other member.<\/li>\n \t<li>Teams have authority. Teams possess the decision-making power to pursue their goals and to manage the activities through which they complete their assignments.<\/li>\n \t<li>Teams operate in a social context. Teams are assembled to do specific work for larger organizations and have the advantage of access to resources available from other areas of their organizations.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h1><a id=\"Why\" href=\"\"><\/a>Why Organizations Build Teams<\/h1>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Why do major organizations now rely more and more on teams to improve operations? Executives at Xerox have reported that team-based operations are 30 percent more productive than conventional operations. General Mills says that factories organized around team activities are 40 percent more productive than traditionally organized factories. According to in-house studies at Shenandoah Life Insurance, teams have cut case-handling time from twenty-seven to two days and virtually eliminated service complaints. FedEx says that teams reduced service errors (lost packages, incorrect bills) by 13 percent in the first year (Fisher[footnote]Fisher, K., Leading Self-Directed Work Teams: A Guide to Developing New Team Leadership Skills, rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999).[\/footnote]; Greenberg &amp; Baron[footnote]Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 315\u201316[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n\n<h1><a id=\"Factors\" href=\"\"><\/a>Factors in Effective Teamwork<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"2b326322-0270-4a4c-b0ef-51095a9b8b9c\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"2b326322-0270-4a4c-b0ef-51095a9b8b9c\" style=\"text-align: justify\">First, let\u2019s begin by identifying several factors that, in practice, tend to contribute to effective teamwork. Generally speaking, teams are effective when the following factors are met (Whetten &amp; Cameron[footnote]Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 497.[\/footnote]):<\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members depend on each other. When team members rely on each other to get the job done, team productivity and efficiency are high.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members trust one another. Teamwork is more effective when members trust each other.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members work better together than individually. When team members perform better as a group than alone, collective performance exceeds individual performance.<\/li>\n \t<li>Members become boosters. When each member is encouraged by other team members to do his or her best, collective results improve.<\/li>\n \t<li>Team members enjoy being on the team. The more that team members derive satisfaction from being on the team, the more committed they become.<\/li>\n \t<li>Leadership rotates. Teams function effectively when leadership responsibility is shared over time.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Most of these explanations probably make pretty clear intuitive sense. Unfortunately, because such issues are rarely as clear-cut as they may seem at first glance, we need to examine the issue of group effectiveness from another perspective\u2014one that considers the effects of factors that aren\u2019t quite so straightforward.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"4fda698d-feb6-40d6-bcb6-2723e4396f69\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Cohesive\" href=\"\"><\/a>Group Cohesiveness<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"f44a889f-13f4-406f-8c30-e3c9d3508964\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"f44a889f-13f4-406f-8c30-e3c9d3508964\" style=\"text-align: justify\">The idea of <b>group cohesiveness<\/b> refers to the attractiveness of a team to its members. If a group is high in cohesiveness, membership is quite satisfying to its members; if it\u2019s low in cohesiveness, members are unhappy with it and may even try to leave it. The principle of group cohesiveness, in other words, is based on the simple idea that groups are most effective when their members like being members of the group (George &amp; Jones[footnote]George, J. M., and Gareth R. Jones, Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 371\u201377.[\/footnote]; Festinger[footnote]Festinger, L., \u201cInformal Social Communication, Psychological Review 57 (1950): 271\u201382.[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Numerous factors may contribute to team cohesiveness, but in this section, we\u2019ll focus on five of the most important:<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"ab911016-1b63-49ca-9429-9145307bd775\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ol>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Size<\/i>. The bigger the team, the less satisfied members tend to be. When teams get too large, members find it harder to interact closely with other members; a few members tend to dominate team activities, and conflict becomes more likely.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Similarity<\/i>. People usually get along better with people like themselves, and teams are generally more cohesive when members perceive fellow members as people who share their own attitudes and experience.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Success<\/i>. When teams are successful, members are satisfied, and other people are more likely to be attracted to their teams.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Exclusiveness<\/i>. The harder it is to get into a group, the happier the people who are already in it. Status (the extent to which outsiders look up to a team, as well as the perks that come with membership) also increases members\u2019 satisfaction.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Competition<\/i>. Members value membership more highly when they\u2019re motivated to achieve common goals\u2014especially when those goals mean outperforming other teams.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<span style=\"text-align: justify\">A cohesive team with goals that are aligned with the goals of the organization is most likely to succeed.\u00a0 There\u2019s such a thing as too much cohesiveness. When, for instance, members are highly motivated to collaborate in performing the team\u2019s activities, the team is more likely to be effective in achieving its goals. Clearly, when those goals are aligned with the goals of the larger organization, the organization, too, will be happy. If, however, its members get too wrapped up in more immediate team goals, the whole team may lose sight of the larger organizational goals toward which it\u2019s supposed to be working.<\/span>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1b72b9bf-ac31-4721-9588-6d4349c1ff66\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Groupthink\" href=\"\"><\/a>Groupthink<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"b9637464-6fd2-44d3-a46c-50cafe9d4df8\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"b9637464-6fd2-44d3-a46c-50cafe9d4df8\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Likewise, it\u2019s easier for leaders to direct members toward team goals when members are all on the same page\u2014when there\u2019s a basic willingness to conform to the team\u2019s rules and guidelines. When there\u2019s too much conformity, however, the group can become ineffective: It may resist change and fresh ideas and, what\u2019s worse, may end up adopting its own dysfunctional tendencies as its way of doing things. Such tendencies may also encourage a phenomenon known as <b>groupthink<\/b>\u2014the tendency to conform to group pressure in making decisions, while failing to think critically or to consider outside influences.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"77d83c03-a9bd-4c85-81d5-5f2852802a5f\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"77d83c03-a9bd-4c85-81d5-5f2852802a5f\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Groupthink is often cited as a factor in the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger in January 1986: Engineers from a supplier of components for the rocket booster warned that the launch might be risky because of the weather but were persuaded to reverse their recommendation by NASA officials who wanted the launch to proceed as scheduled (Griffin[footnote]Griffin, E., \u201cGroupthink of Irving Janis,\u201d 1997, https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3791464?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents (accessed January 6, 2020).[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n\n<h1><a id=\"Fail\" href=\"\"><\/a>Why Teams Fail<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Teams don\u2019t always work. To learn why, let\u2019s take a quick look at four common obstacles to success in introducing teams into an organization (Greenberg &amp; Baron[footnote]Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 317-18.[\/footnote]):<\/p>\n\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Unwillingness to cooperate. Failure to cooperate can occur when members don\u2019t or won\u2019t commit to a common goal or set of activities. What if, for example, half the members of a product-development team want to create a brand-new product and half want to improve an existing product? The entire team may get stuck on this point of contention for weeks or even months.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lack of managerial support. Every team requires organizational resources to achieve its goals, and if management isn\u2019t willing to commit the needed resources\u2014say, funding or key personnel\u2014a team will probably fall short of those goals.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Failure of managers to delegate authority. Team leaders are often chosen from the ranks of successful supervisors\u2014first-line managers who, give instructions on a day-to-day basis and expect to have them carried out. This approach to workplace activities may not work very well in leading a team\u2014a position in which success depends on building a consensus and letting people make their own decisions.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Failure of teams to cooperate. If you\u2019re on a workplace team, your employer probably depends on teams to perform much of the organization\u2019s work and meet many of its goals.\u00a0 In other words, it is, to some extent, a team-based organization, and as such, reaching its overall goals requires a high level of cooperation among teams (Thompson[footnote]Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 323-24.[\/footnote]). When teams can\u2019t agree on mutual goals (or when they duplicate efforts), neither the teams nor the organization is likely to meet with much success.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"Members\" href=\"\"><\/a>The Team and Its Members<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"a4bd022a-700c-468f-ab40-56eed17e2335\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"a4bd022a-700c-468f-ab40-56eed17e2335\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Like it or not, you\u2019ll probably be given some teamwork assignments while you\u2019re in college. More than two-thirds of all students report having participated in the work of an organized team.\u00a0 Why do we put so much emphasis on something that, reportedly, makes many students feel anxious and academically drained? Here\u2019s one college student\u2019s practical-minded answer to this question:<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"58940a66-0fe4-4c7f-aa96-1943f864dfa1\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<blockquote id=\"58940a66-0fe4-4c7f-aa96-1943f864dfa1\">\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cIn the real world, you have to work with people. You don\u2019t always know the people you work with, and you don\u2019t always get along with them. Your boss won\u2019t particularly care, and if you can\u2019t get the job done, your job may end up on the line. Life is all about group work, whether we like it or not. And school, in many ways, prepares us for life, including working with others\u201d (Nichols[footnote]Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008).[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"34c75181-23fd-45ec-8806-57278bdb9444\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"34c75181-23fd-45ec-8806-57278bdb9444\" style=\"text-align: justify\">She\u2019s right. In placing so much emphasis on teamwork skills and experience, colleges are doing the responsible thing\u2014preparing students for the\u00a0 world that awaits them. A survey of Fortune 1000 companies reveals that 79 percent already rely on self-managing teams and 91 percent on various forms of employee work groups. Another survey found that the skill that most employers value in new employees is the ability to work in teams (Whetten &amp; Cameron[footnote]Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.[\/footnote]; Lawler[footnote]Lawler, E. E., Treat People Right (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003).[\/footnote]). If you\u2019re already trying to work your way up an organizational ladder, consider the advice of former Chrysler Chairman Lee Iacocca: \u201cA major reason that capable people fail to advance is that they don\u2019t work well with their colleagues.\u201d\u00a0 The importance of the ability to work in teams was confirmed in a survey of leadership practices of more than sixty of the world\u2019s top organizations (Fortune Magazine[footnote]Fortune Magazine, \u201cWhat Makes Great Leaders: Rethinking the Route to Effective Leadership,\u201d Findings from the Fortune Magazine\/Hay Group 1999 Executive Survey of Leadership Effectiveness, http:\/\/www.lrhartley.com\/seminars\/great-leaders.pdf (accessed January 6, 2020).[\/footnote]). When top executives in these organizations were asked, \u201cWhat causes high-potential leadership candidates to derail? (stop moving up in the organization),\u201d 60 percent of the organizations cited \u201cinability to work in teams.\u201d Interestingly, only 9 percent attributed the failure of these executives to advance to \u201clack of technical ability.\u201d While technical skills will be essential in your getting hired into an organization, your team skills will play a significant role in your ability to advance.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">To be team-ready or not to be team-ready\u2014that is the question. Or, to put it in plainer terms, the question is not whether you\u2019ll find yourself working as part of a team. You will. The question is whether you\u2019ll know how to participate successfully in team-based activities.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1d3021db-9f83-40a9-b3be-bd1b5cfdfce1\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1 style=\"text-align: justify\"><a id=\"Skills\" href=\"\"><\/a>What Skills Does the Team Need?<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"ee4d094d-520d-43a0-9ee8-2b40c1124b4c\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"ee4d094d-520d-43a0-9ee8-2b40c1124b4c\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Sometimes we hear about a sports team made up of mostly average players who win a championship because of coaching genius, flawless teamwork, and superhuman determination (Robbins &amp; Judge[footnote]Robbins, S. P., and Timothy A. Judge, Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2009), 346\u201347.[\/footnote]). But not terribly often. In fact, we usually hear about such teams simply because they\u2019re newsworthy\u2014exceptions to the rule. Typically a team performs well because its members possess some level of talent. This doesn\u2019t mean, however, that we should reduce team performance to the mere sum of its individual contributions: Members\u2019 talents aren\u2019t very useful if they\u2019re not managed in a collective effort to achieve a common goal.<\/p>\n<span style=\"text-align: justify\">In the final analysis, of course, a team can succeed only if its members provide the skills that need managing. In particular, every team requires some mixture of three sets of skills:<\/span>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"063b32d3-40eb-4db3-83ec-3cbb02297517\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n \t<li id=\"063b32d3-40eb-4db3-83ec-3cbb02297517\"><i>Technical skills<\/i>. Because teams must perform certain tasks, they need people with the skills to perform them. For example, if your project calls for a lot of math work, it\u2019s good to have someone with the necessary quantitative skills.<\/li>\n \t<li><i>Decision-making and problem-solving skills<\/i>. Because every task is subject to problems, and because handling every problem means deciding on the best solution, it\u2019s good to have members who are skilled in identifying problems, evaluating alternative solutions, and deciding on the best options.<\/li>\n \t<li><i>Interpersonal skills<\/i>. Because teams are composed of people, and because people need direction and motivation and depend on communication, every group benefits from members who know how to listen, provide feedback, and smooth ruffled feathers. The same people are usually good at communicating the team\u2019s goals and needs to outsiders.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The key to success is ultimately the right mix of these skills. Remember, too, that no team needs to possess all these skills\u2014never mind the right balance of them\u2014from day one. In many cases, a team gains certain skills only when members volunteer for certain tasks and perfect their skills in the process of performing them. For the same reason, effective teamwork develops over time as team members learn how to handle various team-based tasks. In a sense, teamwork is always work in progress.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1c678c6a-72a7-43af-a608-e497a3d22289\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1 style=\"text-align: justify\"><a id=\"Roles\" href=\"\"><\/a>What Roles do Team Members Play?<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"5484b9b4-2d34-4f2e-8004-42fcc56bb2cc\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"5484b9b4-2d34-4f2e-8004-42fcc56bb2cc\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Like your teamwork skills, expect your role on a team to develop over time. Also remember that, both as a student and as a member of the workforce, you\u2019ll be a member of a team more often than a leader . Team members, however, can have as much impact on a team\u2019s success as its leaders.\nThe key is the quality of the contributions they make in performing nonleadership roles (Whetten &amp; Cameron[footnote]Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n<span style=\"text-align: initial\">What, exactly, are those roles? At this point, you\u2019ve probably concluded that every team faces two basic challenges:<\/span>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"e36995a7-e21b-49af-a423-dc2ba03a433f\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ol>\n \t<li id=\"e36995a7-e21b-49af-a423-dc2ba03a433f\">Accomplishing its assigned task<\/li>\n \t<li>Maintaining or improving group cohesiveness<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<span style=\"text-align: justify\">Whether you affect the team\u2019s work positively or negatively depends on the extent to which you help it or hinder it in meeting these two challenges (Whetten &amp; Cameron[footnote]Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.[\/footnote]). We can thus divide teamwork roles into two categories, depending on which of these two challenges each role addresses. These two categories (taskfacilitating roles and relationship-building roles) are summarized in the table below: \u201cRoles that Team Members Play\u201d[footnote]Adapted from David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 517, 519.[\/footnote].<\/span>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"0a6c2939-60e3-4f9f-bb7a-7bc473542731\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Projects\" href=\"\"><\/a>Class Team Projects<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"deaf09ab-5883-4c55-80bd-9dbd85fc7cea\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"deaf09ab-5883-4c55-80bd-9dbd85fc7cea\" style=\"text-align: justify\">As we highlighted earlier, throughout your academic career you\u2019ll likely participate in a number of team projects. Not only will you make lasting friends by being a member of a team, but in addition you\u2019ll produce a better product. To get insider advice on how to survive team projects in college (and perhaps really enjoy yourself in the process), let\u2019s look at some suggestions offered by two students who have gone through this experience (Nichols[footnote]Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008).[\/footnote]; Feenstra[footnote]Feenstra, K., \u201cStudy Skills: Team Work Skills for Group Projects,\u201d iamnext.com, 2002, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/grouproject.html (accessed October 11, 2011).[\/footnote]).<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"3f606a99-56ca-48c4-9f28-8600aa22d40d\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ul>\n \t<li id=\"3f606a99-56ca-48c4-9f28-8600aa22d40d\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Draw up a team charter. At the beginning of the project, draw up a team charter (or contract) that includes the goals of the group; ways to ensure that each team member\u2019s ideas are considered and respected; when and where your group will meet; what happens if a team member skips meetings or doesn\u2019t do his or her share of the work; how conflicts will be resolved.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Contribute your ideas. Share your ideas with your group; they might be valuable to the group. The worst that could happen is that they won\u2019t be used (which is what would happen if you kept quiet).<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Never miss a meeting. Pick a weekly meeting time and write it into your schedule as if it were a class. Never skip it. And make your meetings productive.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Be considerate of each other. Be patient, listen to everyone, communicate frequently, involve everyone in decision making, don\u2019t think you\u2019re always right, be positive, avoid infighting, build trust.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Create a process for resolving conflict. Do this before conflict arises. Set up rules to help the group decide whether the conflict is constructive, whether it\u2019s personal, or whether it arises because someone won\u2019t pull his or her weight. Decide, as a group, how conflict will be handled.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Use the strengths of each team member. Some students are good researchers, others are good writers, others have strong problem-solving or computer skills, while others are good at generating ideas. Don\u2019t have your writer do the research and your researcher do the writing. Not only would the team not be using its resources wisely, but two team members will be frustrated because they\u2019re not using their strengths.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Don\u2019t do all the work yourself. Work with your team to get the work done. The project output is not as important as the experience of working in a team.<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Set deadlines. Don\u2019t leave everything to the end; divide up tasks, hold team members accountable, and set intermediary deadlines for each team member to get his or her work done. Work together to be sure the project is in on time and in good shape.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1><a id=\"Exercises\" href=\"\"><\/a>Exercises<\/h1>\n<ol>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span class=\"MathAndMarkdown__MarkdownContainer-sc-1m4kxcm-0 hApWxU\">Think back to a time you've been assigned to be on a team for a class assignment. How you could have used something you learned in this reading to make that experience more positive for either you or the rest of the team.\u00a0 Your instructor may ask you to turn this in on the day the reading is due.<\/span><\/li>\n \t<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span class=\"MathAndMarkdown__MarkdownContainer-sc-1m4kxcm-0 hApWxU\">Have you ever been on a team that constructed a team charter upon being formed? If so, discuss a specific way in which it was helpful to your team. If not, discuss a situation in which it would have been useful for your team to have done so.\u00a0 Your instructor may ask you to turn this in on the day the reading is due.\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h1>Chapter Table of Contents<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Key\">Some Key Characteristics of Teams<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Why\">Why Organizations Build Teams<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Factors\">Factors in Effective Teamwork<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Cohesive\">Group Cohesiveness<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Groupthink\">Groupthink<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Fail\">Why Teams Fail<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Members\">The Team and Its Members<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Skills\">What Skills does the Team Need?<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Roles\">What Roles do Team Members Play?<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Projects\">Class Team Projects<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/chapter\/teamwork\/#Exercises\">Exercises<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">A <b>team<\/b> (or a work team) is a group of people with complementary skills who work together to achieve a specific goal (Thompson<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-1\" href=\"#footnote-27-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>).\u00a0 \u201cA group,\u201d suggests Bonnie Edelstein, a consultant in organizational development, \u201cis a bunch of people in an elevator. A team is also a bunch of people in an elevator, but the elevator is broken.\u201d This distinction may be a little oversimplified, but a team is clearly something more than a mere group of individuals. In particular, members of a group\u2014or, more accurately, a working group\u2014go about their jobs independently and meet primarily to share information. A group of department-store managers, for example, might meet monthly to discuss their progress in cutting plant costs, but each manager is focused on the goals of his or her department because each is held accountable for meeting only those goals. Teams, by contrast, are responsible for achieving specific common goals, and they\u2019re generally empowered to make the decisions needed to complete their authorized tasks.<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"Key\" href=\"\"><\/a>Some Key Characteristics of Teams<\/h1>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">To keep matters in perspective, let\u2019s identify five key characteristics of work teams (Thompson<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-2\" href=\"#footnote-27-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>; Alderfer, et. al.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Alderfer, C. P., \u201cGroup and Intergroup Relations,\u201d in Improving Life at Work, ed. J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle (Palisades, CA: Goodyear, 1977), 277\u201396\" id=\"return-footnote-27-3\" href=\"#footnote-27-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>):<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Teams are accountable for achieving specific common goals. Members are collectively responsible for achieving team goals, and if they succeed, they\u2019re rewarded collectively.<\/li>\n<li>Teams function interdependently. Members cannot achieve goals independently and must rely on each other for information, input, and expertise.<\/li>\n<li>Teams are stable. Teams remain intact long enough to finish their assigned tasks, and each member remains on board long enough to get to know every other member.<\/li>\n<li>Teams have authority. Teams possess the decision-making power to pursue their goals and to manage the activities through which they complete their assignments.<\/li>\n<li>Teams operate in a social context. Teams are assembled to do specific work for larger organizations and have the advantage of access to resources available from other areas of their organizations.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h1><a id=\"Why\" href=\"\"><\/a>Why Organizations Build Teams<\/h1>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Why do major organizations now rely more and more on teams to improve operations? Executives at Xerox have reported that team-based operations are 30 percent more productive than conventional operations. General Mills says that factories organized around team activities are 40 percent more productive than traditionally organized factories. According to in-house studies at Shenandoah Life Insurance, teams have cut case-handling time from twenty-seven to two days and virtually eliminated service complaints. FedEx says that teams reduced service errors (lost packages, incorrect bills) by 13 percent in the first year (Fisher<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Fisher, K., Leading Self-Directed Work Teams: A Guide to Developing New Team Leadership Skills, rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-4\" href=\"#footnote-27-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a>; Greenberg &amp; Baron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 315\u201316\" id=\"return-footnote-27-5\" href=\"#footnote-27-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"Factors\" href=\"\"><\/a>Factors in Effective Teamwork<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"2b326322-0270-4a4c-b0ef-51095a9b8b9c\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"2b326322-0270-4a4c-b0ef-51095a9b8b9c\" style=\"text-align: justify\">First, let\u2019s begin by identifying several factors that, in practice, tend to contribute to effective teamwork. Generally speaking, teams are effective when the following factors are met (Whetten &amp; Cameron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 497.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-6\" href=\"#footnote-27-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a>):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members depend on each other. When team members rely on each other to get the job done, team productivity and efficiency are high.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members trust one another. Teamwork is more effective when members trust each other.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Members work better together than individually. When team members perform better as a group than alone, collective performance exceeds individual performance.<\/li>\n<li>Members become boosters. When each member is encouraged by other team members to do his or her best, collective results improve.<\/li>\n<li>Team members enjoy being on the team. The more that team members derive satisfaction from being on the team, the more committed they become.<\/li>\n<li>Leadership rotates. Teams function effectively when leadership responsibility is shared over time.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Most of these explanations probably make pretty clear intuitive sense. Unfortunately, because such issues are rarely as clear-cut as they may seem at first glance, we need to examine the issue of group effectiveness from another perspective\u2014one that considers the effects of factors that aren\u2019t quite so straightforward.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"4fda698d-feb6-40d6-bcb6-2723e4396f69\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Cohesive\" href=\"\"><\/a>Group Cohesiveness<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"f44a889f-13f4-406f-8c30-e3c9d3508964\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"f44a889f-13f4-406f-8c30-e3c9d3508964\" style=\"text-align: justify\">The idea of <b>group cohesiveness<\/b> refers to the attractiveness of a team to its members. If a group is high in cohesiveness, membership is quite satisfying to its members; if it\u2019s low in cohesiveness, members are unhappy with it and may even try to leave it. The principle of group cohesiveness, in other words, is based on the simple idea that groups are most effective when their members like being members of the group (George &amp; Jones<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"George, J. M., and Gareth R. Jones, Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 371\u201377.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-7\" href=\"#footnote-27-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a>; Festinger<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Festinger, L., \u201cInformal Social Communication, Psychological Review 57 (1950): 271\u201382.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-8\" href=\"#footnote-27-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Numerous factors may contribute to team cohesiveness, but in this section, we\u2019ll focus on five of the most important:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"ab911016-1b63-49ca-9429-9145307bd775\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Size<\/i>. The bigger the team, the less satisfied members tend to be. When teams get too large, members find it harder to interact closely with other members; a few members tend to dominate team activities, and conflict becomes more likely.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Similarity<\/i>. People usually get along better with people like themselves, and teams are generally more cohesive when members perceive fellow members as people who share their own attitudes and experience.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Success<\/i>. When teams are successful, members are satisfied, and other people are more likely to be attracted to their teams.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Exclusiveness<\/i>. The harder it is to get into a group, the happier the people who are already in it. Status (the extent to which outsiders look up to a team, as well as the perks that come with membership) also increases members\u2019 satisfaction.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><i>Competition<\/i>. Members value membership more highly when they\u2019re motivated to achieve common goals\u2014especially when those goals mean outperforming other teams.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: justify\">A cohesive team with goals that are aligned with the goals of the organization is most likely to succeed.\u00a0 There\u2019s such a thing as too much cohesiveness. When, for instance, members are highly motivated to collaborate in performing the team\u2019s activities, the team is more likely to be effective in achieving its goals. Clearly, when those goals are aligned with the goals of the larger organization, the organization, too, will be happy. If, however, its members get too wrapped up in more immediate team goals, the whole team may lose sight of the larger organizational goals toward which it\u2019s supposed to be working.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1b72b9bf-ac31-4721-9588-6d4349c1ff66\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Groupthink\" href=\"\"><\/a>Groupthink<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"b9637464-6fd2-44d3-a46c-50cafe9d4df8\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"b9637464-6fd2-44d3-a46c-50cafe9d4df8\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Likewise, it\u2019s easier for leaders to direct members toward team goals when members are all on the same page\u2014when there\u2019s a basic willingness to conform to the team\u2019s rules and guidelines. When there\u2019s too much conformity, however, the group can become ineffective: It may resist change and fresh ideas and, what\u2019s worse, may end up adopting its own dysfunctional tendencies as its way of doing things. Such tendencies may also encourage a phenomenon known as <b>groupthink<\/b>\u2014the tendency to conform to group pressure in making decisions, while failing to think critically or to consider outside influences.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"77d83c03-a9bd-4c85-81d5-5f2852802a5f\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"77d83c03-a9bd-4c85-81d5-5f2852802a5f\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Groupthink is often cited as a factor in the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger in January 1986: Engineers from a supplier of components for the rocket booster warned that the launch might be risky because of the weather but were persuaded to reverse their recommendation by NASA officials who wanted the launch to proceed as scheduled (Griffin<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Griffin, E., \u201cGroupthink of Irving Janis,\u201d 1997, https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3791464?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents (accessed January 6, 2020).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-9\" href=\"#footnote-27-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<h1><a id=\"Fail\" href=\"\"><\/a>Why Teams Fail<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">Teams don\u2019t always work. To learn why, let\u2019s take a quick look at four common obstacles to success in introducing teams into an organization (Greenberg &amp; Baron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 317-18.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-10\" href=\"#footnote-27-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a>):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Unwillingness to cooperate. Failure to cooperate can occur when members don\u2019t or won\u2019t commit to a common goal or set of activities. What if, for example, half the members of a product-development team want to create a brand-new product and half want to improve an existing product? The entire team may get stuck on this point of contention for weeks or even months.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Lack of managerial support. Every team requires organizational resources to achieve its goals, and if management isn\u2019t willing to commit the needed resources\u2014say, funding or key personnel\u2014a team will probably fall short of those goals.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Failure of managers to delegate authority. Team leaders are often chosen from the ranks of successful supervisors\u2014first-line managers who, give instructions on a day-to-day basis and expect to have them carried out. This approach to workplace activities may not work very well in leading a team\u2014a position in which success depends on building a consensus and letting people make their own decisions.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Failure of teams to cooperate. If you\u2019re on a workplace team, your employer probably depends on teams to perform much of the organization\u2019s work and meet many of its goals.\u00a0 In other words, it is, to some extent, a team-based organization, and as such, reaching its overall goals requires a high level of cooperation among teams (Thompson<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 323-24.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-11\" href=\"#footnote-27-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a>). When teams can\u2019t agree on mutual goals (or when they duplicate efforts), neither the teams nor the organization is likely to meet with much success.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><a id=\"Members\" href=\"\"><\/a>The Team and Its Members<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"a4bd022a-700c-468f-ab40-56eed17e2335\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"a4bd022a-700c-468f-ab40-56eed17e2335\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Like it or not, you\u2019ll probably be given some teamwork assignments while you\u2019re in college. More than two-thirds of all students report having participated in the work of an organized team.\u00a0 Why do we put so much emphasis on something that, reportedly, makes many students feel anxious and academically drained? Here\u2019s one college student\u2019s practical-minded answer to this question:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"58940a66-0fe4-4c7f-aa96-1943f864dfa1\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<blockquote id=\"58940a66-0fe4-4c7f-aa96-1943f864dfa1\">\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">\u201cIn the real world, you have to work with people. You don\u2019t always know the people you work with, and you don\u2019t always get along with them. Your boss won\u2019t particularly care, and if you can\u2019t get the job done, your job may end up on the line. Life is all about group work, whether we like it or not. And school, in many ways, prepares us for life, including working with others\u201d (Nichols<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-12\" href=\"#footnote-27-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"34c75181-23fd-45ec-8806-57278bdb9444\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"34c75181-23fd-45ec-8806-57278bdb9444\" style=\"text-align: justify\">She\u2019s right. In placing so much emphasis on teamwork skills and experience, colleges are doing the responsible thing\u2014preparing students for the\u00a0 world that awaits them. A survey of Fortune 1000 companies reveals that 79 percent already rely on self-managing teams and 91 percent on various forms of employee work groups. Another survey found that the skill that most employers value in new employees is the ability to work in teams (Whetten &amp; Cameron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-13\" href=\"#footnote-27-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a>; Lawler<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lawler, E. E., Treat People Right (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-14\" href=\"#footnote-27-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a>). If you\u2019re already trying to work your way up an organizational ladder, consider the advice of former Chrysler Chairman Lee Iacocca: \u201cA major reason that capable people fail to advance is that they don\u2019t work well with their colleagues.\u201d\u00a0 The importance of the ability to work in teams was confirmed in a survey of leadership practices of more than sixty of the world\u2019s top organizations (Fortune Magazine<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Fortune Magazine, \u201cWhat Makes Great Leaders: Rethinking the Route to Effective Leadership,\u201d Findings from the Fortune Magazine\/Hay Group 1999 Executive Survey of Leadership Effectiveness, http:\/\/www.lrhartley.com\/seminars\/great-leaders.pdf (accessed January 6, 2020).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-15\" href=\"#footnote-27-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a>). When top executives in these organizations were asked, \u201cWhat causes high-potential leadership candidates to derail? (stop moving up in the organization),\u201d 60 percent of the organizations cited \u201cinability to work in teams.\u201d Interestingly, only 9 percent attributed the failure of these executives to advance to \u201clack of technical ability.\u201d While technical skills will be essential in your getting hired into an organization, your team skills will play a significant role in your ability to advance.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">To be team-ready or not to be team-ready\u2014that is the question. Or, to put it in plainer terms, the question is not whether you\u2019ll find yourself working as part of a team. You will. The question is whether you\u2019ll know how to participate successfully in team-based activities.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1d3021db-9f83-40a9-b3be-bd1b5cfdfce1\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1 style=\"text-align: justify\"><a id=\"Skills\" href=\"\"><\/a>What Skills Does the Team Need?<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"ee4d094d-520d-43a0-9ee8-2b40c1124b4c\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"ee4d094d-520d-43a0-9ee8-2b40c1124b4c\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Sometimes we hear about a sports team made up of mostly average players who win a championship because of coaching genius, flawless teamwork, and superhuman determination (Robbins &amp; Judge<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Robbins, S. P., and Timothy A. Judge, Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2009), 346\u201347.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-16\" href=\"#footnote-27-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a>). But not terribly often. In fact, we usually hear about such teams simply because they\u2019re newsworthy\u2014exceptions to the rule. Typically a team performs well because its members possess some level of talent. This doesn\u2019t mean, however, that we should reduce team performance to the mere sum of its individual contributions: Members\u2019 talents aren\u2019t very useful if they\u2019re not managed in a collective effort to achieve a common goal.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: justify\">In the final analysis, of course, a team can succeed only if its members provide the skills that need managing. In particular, every team requires some mixture of three sets of skills:<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"063b32d3-40eb-4db3-83ec-3cbb02297517\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ul style=\"text-align: justify\">\n<li id=\"063b32d3-40eb-4db3-83ec-3cbb02297517\"><i>Technical skills<\/i>. Because teams must perform certain tasks, they need people with the skills to perform them. For example, if your project calls for a lot of math work, it\u2019s good to have someone with the necessary quantitative skills.<\/li>\n<li><i>Decision-making and problem-solving skills<\/i>. Because every task is subject to problems, and because handling every problem means deciding on the best solution, it\u2019s good to have members who are skilled in identifying problems, evaluating alternative solutions, and deciding on the best options.<\/li>\n<li><i>Interpersonal skills<\/i>. Because teams are composed of people, and because people need direction and motivation and depend on communication, every group benefits from members who know how to listen, provide feedback, and smooth ruffled feathers. The same people are usually good at communicating the team\u2019s goals and needs to outsiders.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify\">The key to success is ultimately the right mix of these skills. Remember, too, that no team needs to possess all these skills\u2014never mind the right balance of them\u2014from day one. In many cases, a team gains certain skills only when members volunteer for certain tasks and perfect their skills in the process of performing them. For the same reason, effective teamwork develops over time as team members learn how to handle various team-based tasks. In a sense, teamwork is always work in progress.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"1c678c6a-72a7-43af-a608-e497a3d22289\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1 style=\"text-align: justify\"><a id=\"Roles\" href=\"\"><\/a>What Roles do Team Members Play?<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"5484b9b4-2d34-4f2e-8004-42fcc56bb2cc\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"5484b9b4-2d34-4f2e-8004-42fcc56bb2cc\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Like your teamwork skills, expect your role on a team to develop over time. Also remember that, both as a student and as a member of the workforce, you\u2019ll be a member of a team more often than a leader . Team members, however, can have as much impact on a team\u2019s success as its leaders.<br \/>\nThe key is the quality of the contributions they make in performing nonleadership roles (Whetten &amp; Cameron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-17\" href=\"#footnote-27-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial\">What, exactly, are those roles? At this point, you\u2019ve probably concluded that every team faces two basic challenges:<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"e36995a7-e21b-49af-a423-dc2ba03a433f\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ol>\n<li id=\"e36995a7-e21b-49af-a423-dc2ba03a433f\">Accomplishing its assigned task<\/li>\n<li>Maintaining or improving group cohesiveness<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: justify\">Whether you affect the team\u2019s work positively or negatively depends on the extent to which you help it or hinder it in meeting these two challenges (Whetten &amp; Cameron<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-18\" href=\"#footnote-27-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a>). We can thus divide teamwork roles into two categories, depending on which of these two challenges each role addresses. These two categories (taskfacilitating roles and relationship-building roles) are summarized in the table below: \u201cRoles that Team Members Play\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Adapted from David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 517, 519.\" id=\"return-footnote-27-19\" href=\"#footnote-27-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"0a6c2939-60e3-4f9f-bb7a-7bc473542731\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<h1><a id=\"Projects\" href=\"\"><\/a>Class Team Projects<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"deaf09ab-5883-4c55-80bd-9dbd85fc7cea\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<p id=\"deaf09ab-5883-4c55-80bd-9dbd85fc7cea\" style=\"text-align: justify\">As we highlighted earlier, throughout your academic career you\u2019ll likely participate in a number of team projects. Not only will you make lasting friends by being a member of a team, but in addition you\u2019ll produce a better product. To get insider advice on how to survive team projects in college (and perhaps really enjoy yourself in the process), let\u2019s look at some suggestions offered by two students who have gone through this experience (Nichols<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-20\" href=\"#footnote-27-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a>; Feenstra<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Feenstra, K., \u201cStudy Skills: Team Work Skills for Group Projects,\u201d iamnext.com, 2002, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/grouproject.html (accessed October 11, 2011).\" id=\"return-footnote-27-21\" href=\"#footnote-27-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pages_block\">\n<div class=\"PagesV2HTMLContentstyles__Container-g3hbw3-0 iIXYYj\" data-click-id=\"3f606a99-56ca-48c4-9f28-8600aa22d40d\">\n<div class=\"HTMLContentstyles__Wrapper-hv2w60-0 fgnwfi\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"3f606a99-56ca-48c4-9f28-8600aa22d40d\" style=\"text-align: justify\">Draw up a team charter. At the beginning of the project, draw up a team charter (or contract) that includes the goals of the group; ways to ensure that each team member\u2019s ideas are considered and respected; when and where your group will meet; what happens if a team member skips meetings or doesn\u2019t do his or her share of the work; how conflicts will be resolved.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Contribute your ideas. Share your ideas with your group; they might be valuable to the group. The worst that could happen is that they won\u2019t be used (which is what would happen if you kept quiet).<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Never miss a meeting. Pick a weekly meeting time and write it into your schedule as if it were a class. Never skip it. And make your meetings productive.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Be considerate of each other. Be patient, listen to everyone, communicate frequently, involve everyone in decision making, don\u2019t think you\u2019re always right, be positive, avoid infighting, build trust.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Create a process for resolving conflict. Do this before conflict arises. Set up rules to help the group decide whether the conflict is constructive, whether it\u2019s personal, or whether it arises because someone won\u2019t pull his or her weight. Decide, as a group, how conflict will be handled.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Use the strengths of each team member. Some students are good researchers, others are good writers, others have strong problem-solving or computer skills, while others are good at generating ideas. Don\u2019t have your writer do the research and your researcher do the writing. Not only would the team not be using its resources wisely, but two team members will be frustrated because they\u2019re not using their strengths.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Don\u2019t do all the work yourself. Work with your team to get the work done. The project output is not as important as the experience of working in a team.<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\">Set deadlines. Don\u2019t leave everything to the end; divide up tasks, hold team members accountable, and set intermediary deadlines for each team member to get his or her work done. Work together to be sure the project is in on time and in good shape.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1><a id=\"Exercises\" href=\"\"><\/a>Exercises<\/h1>\n<ol>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span class=\"MathAndMarkdown__MarkdownContainer-sc-1m4kxcm-0 hApWxU\">Think back to a time you&#8217;ve been assigned to be on a team for a class assignment. How you could have used something you learned in this reading to make that experience more positive for either you or the rest of the team.\u00a0 Your instructor may ask you to turn this in on the day the reading is due.<\/span><\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: justify\"><span class=\"MathAndMarkdown__MarkdownContainer-sc-1m4kxcm-0 hApWxU\">Have you ever been on a team that constructed a team charter upon being formed? If so, discuss a specific way in which it was helpful to your team. If not, discuss a situation in which it would have been useful for your team to have done so.\u00a0 Your instructor may ask you to turn this in on the day the reading is due.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-27-1\">Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-2\">Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-3\">Alderfer, C. P., \u201cGroup and Intergroup Relations,\u201d in Improving Life at Work, ed. J. R. Hackman and J. L. Suttle (Palisades, CA: Goodyear, 1977), 277\u201396 <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-4\">Fisher, K., Leading Self-Directed Work Teams: A Guide to Developing New Team Leadership Skills, rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-5\">Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 315\u201316 <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-6\">Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 497. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-7\">George, J. M., and Gareth R. Jones, Understanding and Managing Organizational Behavior, 5th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 371\u201377. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-8\">Festinger, L., \u201cInformal Social Communication, Psychological Review 57 (1950): 271\u201382. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-9\">Griffin, E., \u201cGroupthink of Irving Janis,\u201d 1997, https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/3791464?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents (accessed January 6, 2020). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-10\">Greenberg, J., and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 317-18. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-11\">Thompson, L. L., Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 323-24. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-12\">Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-13\">Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-14\">Lawler, E. E., Treat People Right (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-15\">Fortune Magazine, \u201cWhat Makes Great Leaders: Rethinking the Route to Effective Leadership,\u201d Findings from the Fortune Magazine\/Hay Group 1999 Executive Survey of Leadership Effectiveness, http:\/\/www.lrhartley.com\/seminars\/great-leaders.pdf (accessed January 6, 2020). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-16\">Robbins, S. P., and Timothy A. Judge, Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2009), 346\u201347. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-17\">Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-18\">Whetten, D. A., and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 498-99. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-19\">Adapted from David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron, Developing Management Skills, 7th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2007), 517, 519. <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-20\">Nichols, H., \u201cTeamwork in School, Work and Life,\u201d iamnext.com, 2003, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/groupwork.html (accessed September 1, 2008). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-27-21\">Feenstra, K., \u201cStudy Skills: Team Work Skills for Group Projects,\u201d iamnext.com, 2002, http:\/\/www.iamnext.com\/academics\/grouproject.html (accessed October 11, 2011). <a href=\"#return-footnote-27-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-27","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":21,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/27","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/27\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":28,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/27\/revisions\/28"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/21"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/27\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=27"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=27"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=27"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/industrialengineeringintro\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=27"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}