{"id":223,"date":"2025-01-29T02:53:49","date_gmt":"2025-01-29T02:53:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/chapter\/4-2-causes-of-settlement\/"},"modified":"2026-03-16T13:58:58","modified_gmt":"2026-03-16T13:58:58","slug":"4-2-causes-of-settlement","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/chapter\/4-2-causes-of-settlement\/","title":{"raw":"4.2 Causes of settlement","rendered":"4.2 Causes of settlement"},"content":{"raw":"The main reason for development of (intolerable) settlement is the application of (excessive) structural loading on the foundation. However, settlement may develop due to direct or indirect environmental loadings and actions too such as:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Consolidation due to water table lowering, resulting in an increase in effective stress (<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\">Figure 4.3<\/a>).<\/li>\n \t<li>Changes in soil density due to dynamic loadings e.g., seismic loading of dry coarse-grained soils resulting in <em>dynamic compaction<\/em> and saturated coarse-grained soils resulting in<em> liquefaction <\/em>(<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\">Figure 4.4<\/a>).<\/li>\n \t<li>When a structure is founded on <i>expansive <\/i>soil deposits, heave i.e., upwards soil movement may develop due to soil moisture increase, or settlement due to soil shrinkage caused by decrease of its moisture content (<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\">Figure 4.5<\/a>). Expansive soils, mainly high plasticity clays, tend to expand while absorbing water, and contract while expelling it.<\/li>\n \t<li>Collapse of the structure of <em>sensitive<\/em> soils.<\/li>\n \t<li>Poor compaction of fill materials.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nThe focus of this Part is on settlements due to application of structural loadings.\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4101\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-220 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\" alt=\"Left hand photograph shows an overpass, with a crack running from the ground to the top surface of the bridge. Right hand photograph shows a close-up of the vertical crack.\" width=\"800\" height=\"496\"><\/a> Figure 4.3. Differential settlement of a bridge due to over-pumping for irrigation purposes (author's own photos).[\/caption]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4102\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-221 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\" alt=\"Photograph of the surface of a carpark. There is a large puddle extending from beneath the cars to the foreground of the photo, and the surface of the carpark has settled as result of soil liquefaction.\" width=\"600\" height=\"380\"><\/a> Figure 4.4. Settlement due to seismic liquefaction (<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_liquefaction_2,Katori-city,Japan.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Soil liquefaction 2, Katori-city, Japan<\/a> by katorisi, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>).[\/caption]\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_4103\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-222 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\" alt=\"Photograph of the side of a house with a diagonal crack in the shape of steps running from the top left-hand corner of the wall to the ground on the right.\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\"><\/a> Figure 4.5. Masonry damage due to subsidence (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/media\/images\/sinkhole-activity-damages-home\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">US Geological Survey USGS website<\/a>, marked as public domain).[\/caption]","rendered":"<p>The main reason for development of (intolerable) settlement is the application of (excessive) structural loading on the foundation. However, settlement may develop due to direct or indirect environmental loadings and actions too such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Consolidation due to water table lowering, resulting in an increase in effective stress (<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\">Figure 4.3<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li>Changes in soil density due to dynamic loadings e.g., seismic loading of dry coarse-grained soils resulting in <em>dynamic compaction<\/em> and saturated coarse-grained soils resulting in<em> liquefaction <\/em>(<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\">Figure 4.4<\/a>).<\/li>\n<li>When a structure is founded on <i>expansive <\/i>soil deposits, heave i.e., upwards soil movement may develop due to soil moisture increase, or settlement due to soil shrinkage caused by decrease of its moisture content (<a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\">Figure 4.5<\/a>). Expansive soils, mainly high plasticity clays, tend to expand while absorbing water, and contract while expelling it.<\/li>\n<li>Collapse of the structure of <em>sensitive<\/em> soils.<\/li>\n<li>Poor compaction of fill materials.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The focus of this Part is on settlements due to application of structural loadings.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4101\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4101\" style=\"width: 800px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-220 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png\" alt=\"Left hand photograph shows an overpass, with a crack running from the ground to the top surface of the bridge. Right hand photograph shows a close-up of the vertical crack.\" width=\"800\" height=\"496\" srcset=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394.png 800w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394-300x186.png 300w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394-768x476.png 768w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394-65x40.png 65w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394-225x140.png 225w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2025\/01\/4.3-replace-e1747992057394-350x217.png 350w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4101\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.3. Differential settlement of a bridge due to over-pumping for irrigation purposes (author&#8217;s own photos).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4102\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4102\" style=\"width: 600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-221 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png\" alt=\"Photograph of the surface of a carpark. There is a large puddle extending from beneath the cars to the foreground of the photo, and the surface of the carpark has settled as result of soil liquefaction.\" width=\"600\" height=\"380\" srcset=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550.png 600w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550-300x190.png 300w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550-65x41.png 65w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550-225x143.png 225w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.4-replace-e1747992094550-350x222.png 350w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4102\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.4. Settlement due to seismic liquefaction (<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_liquefaction_2,Katori-city,Japan.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Soil liquefaction 2, Katori-city, Japan<\/a> by katorisi, via Wikimedia Commons, is licensed under <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_4103\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4103\" style=\"width: 600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/oercollective.caul.edu.au\/app\/uploads\/sites\/143\/2025\/01\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-222 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png\" alt=\"Photograph of the side of a house with a diagonal crack in the shape of steps running from the top left-hand corner of the wall to the ground on the right.\" width=\"600\" height=\"400\" srcset=\"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942.png 600w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942-65x43.png 65w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942-225x150.png 225w, https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/9\/2026\/03\/4.5-replace-e1747992132942-350x233.png 350w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-4103\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.5. Masonry damage due to subsidence (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/media\/images\/sinkhole-activity-damages-home\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">US Geological Survey USGS website<\/a>, marked as public domain).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"4.2 Causes of settlement","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-223","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":215,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/223","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/223\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":224,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/223\/revisions\/224"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/215"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/223\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=223"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=223"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=223"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/libraryresources.nse.org.ng\/fundamentalsoffoundationengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=223"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}